Though the See of Armagh has long held the primacy of Ireland, recognized as the first of all the metropolitan (a bit of a misnomer until the 20th century) sees of Ireland since the councils of the 12th century, Iona held not only the primacy of the Columban houses but the precedence of all the Irish church until the late 9th century. Its authority extended over the Cruithni of Fortrenn (Picts north of the Mounth) and of Caledon (Picts south of the Mounth), Northumbria and Mercia until the 664 Synod of Streonshalh, Strathclyde, and the kingdoms in Wales and the rest of southwest Britain.
One can clearly see from Adomnan’s presiding at the Council of Birr in 697 the ranking of Iona vis-à-vis all other sees. The town, then a small village, of Birr is near Uisneach, the geographic center of Ireland, and the council made decisions not only for all the Irish church but for laws of the whole land. Unlike the fictitious committee of twelve plus its head St. Patrick alleged to have codified Irish law, the Council of Birr is well-documented by records that are both contemporary and external as well as internal.
Armagh’s star did not really begin to rise until the last relics of St. Colmcille were removed from the island of Iona to Kells and Dunkeld in 878. Most of the hagiography of and exaggerated claims about St. Patrick by backers of his cult, and of the power of Armagh, began near the end of the 9th century, or at least only began to gain traction then. Its rise greatly accelerated in 891 when the abbot of Armagh and coarb of St. Patrick, Mael Brigte mac Tornain, became abbot of Iona and coarb of St. Colmcille as well.
Local church polity
As part of my research for this series of articles, I spent about nine hours straight one day scouring the Wikipedia article “List of monastic houses in Ireland” to cull out and collect all those listed therein founded by Celtic monks or nuns or Culdees. Most of the reason was to get a count of how many; I found nine hundred and five listed.
Clearly these could not have all been communal living establishments, i.e. convents, else they would have taken in the entire population. The vast majority listed, especially the ones beginning “Kill” or “Kil”, were likely local churches, all of which in the pre-Anglo-Norman invasion Irish Church were attached to abbeys or other convents, the Irish Church then being entirely monastic-based.
Even that number (905) is a gross underestimate, once taking the afore-mentioned fact into account, since dozens of local churches I found in a previous study of the Celtic churches in Iar (West) Connacht, just one of six major regions of Connacht, are missing from the list.
The scheme on the Continent in the empire in which a bishop governed his diocese from its major city and boundary lines were territorial did not work out in Ireland, a land which was entirely rural and boundary lines often fluctuated. Instead, polity organized along tribal and clan lines, with office holders being elected from among the derbhfine of the ruling clan as were its chiefs, or kings.
A derbhfine took in three generations of men of the ruling family; succession was not by primogeniture, never in Ireland and not in Scotland, at least among the Scots and Picts, and possibly the Brets (of Strathclyde), until the High Middle Ages.
The center of the Irish church was the abbey. Its abbot was elected by the derbhfine of the local ruling clan from qualified candidates among it who had the requisite education and training. Next in rank was the ferlegind, or rectaire, the executive officer who oversaw most of the day-to-day business of the abbey, the equivalent of a prior in Continental abbeys. The bishop, also attached to the abbey, ranked in the third position; in some cases abbot and bishop were one-in-the-same. The scribe, or scribes, came next in formal ranking but was/were often held in higher esteem than either the ferlegind or the bishop.
The abbot was the coarb, or successor, of its founder. The sitting abbot of the primary house of the founder was coarb of the saint himself, such as abbot of Iona being the Coarb of St. Colmcille or the abbot of Clonmacnoise being the Coarb of St. Ciaran, or of the saint herself, such as the abbot, or abbess, of Kildare being the Coarb of St. Brigit.
Abbeys and churches did not belong to a specific territory but to the primary house of their founder, which was not always the first house he or she established. For instance, the abbeys and churches founded by Colmcille of Iona and his followers fell under the ultimate jurisdiction of his coarb, whether at Iona or Kells or Raphoe, though his first house was at Derry.
This family of institutions tied to St. Colmcille, their common progenitor, and his successors was called the Muintir Colmcille, or Family of Colmcille. Likewise, there was a Muintir Padraig, a Muintir Brigid, a Muintir Brendan, a Muintir Fechin, etc.
Individual churches fell under the nearest house of their founder, even though that might be a long distance away. All clerics were monks under an abbot’s jurisdiction, and at least in early centuries nuns served as priests and even bishops as well as men. Likewise, monastic institutions and the churches attached to them, and in Ireland all churches were so attached, followed the rules of their founder.
Until the Continental-style dioceses were created in the 12th century, ecclesiastical polity followed tribal and clan lines. Monastic houses tied to a single founder followed that founder’s rule. The two systems interconnected as well as repulsed each other.
Titles unique to the Irish church
The Irish had two words for abbey or convent: mainistir (cognate for the Anglo-Saxon minster) was by far the most common, and thompuil very rare. The Irish didn’t make Continental distinctions in any strict way, and “mainistir” can be correctly translated as either “monastery” or “abbey”.
The Irish had eleven words for a local church, sometimes varying by region, which although maybe intended to refer to differing status and/or size were in practice interchangeable: domnach, cill, teampull, eaglais (aglish), aireagal (errigal), urnaidhe (urney, mostly applied to an oratory), scrin (shrine), lann, baisleac, disert, and cros. Sometimes which was chosen had more to do with the church’s name. For example, almost all of St. Colmcille’s churches were designated “Teampull” so that they didn’t get stuck with “Cill Colmcille”, which I imagine would be awkward even in Irish. Or the Church of the Wood on Ballyconry Peninsula in Connemara, which in Irish if the designation were not “Teampull” would be “Cill Coille” (and pronounced “kill kill”).
Coarbs (comarb in Scotland) were the successors of the founder, either of a particular abbey or of a family of abbeys and churches, sometimes both. In the early Irish church, a coarb was always an abbot. For example, the abbot of Iona was the coarb of Iona as well as the coarb of St. Colmcille. On the other hand, the abbot of Cong over the abbey founded by St. Fechin was coarb of Cong but not of St. Fechin, whose coarb was at Fore. The position was hereditary by election within the three generations of the local ruling family called the “derbhfine” among qualified candidates, i.e., those with the knowledge and training. In later years, clerical branches became their own families, called “fine erluma”, like the O’Duffys of Connacht.
After the reforms of the 12th century, the bishop of a diocese was considered coarb of the founder rather than the abbot, if an abbey persisted, or the dean of the cathedral chapter. In cases where an abbey dissolved without a succeeding institution, the position of coarb became a hereditary rank of almost nobility, completely secular. The MacGinnains in Muintir Murchada were coarbs of Kilcoona and of St. Cuana while the O’Callanans were coarbs of Kilcahill and St. Cathal.
Several families in Scotland with clerical origins became chiefs of clans by virtue of being the coarbs of a local saint. The Macnabs are coarbs of St. Fillan of Glendochardt; the Rosses are coarbs of St. Maelrubha of Applecross through their O’Beolain ancestors; and the Livingstones are coarbs of St. Moluag of Lismore. The Hamiltons are the coarbs of the Abbots of Abernethy. The Mackays of Strathnaver are the heads of the Kindred of St. Columba in Scotland and coarbs of the Abbots of Dunkeld.
Fereglinds, or rectaires, were the executive officers of abbeys, the ones who managed the day-to-day administrative side of the house. Roughly equal to the Continental prior.
Erenaghs were managers of the church lands, usually restricted to the church’s termon lands, though in some cases other glebe lands were included. The position became hereditary within a single family; for example, the O’Duanes were erenaghs of Killursa, the O’Mallins were erenaghs of Kilkilvery, and the O’Lees were erenaghs of Annaghdown. Just as the O’Heaneys were erenaghs of Ballynspiddal (St. Enda) and the MacAneaves of the same vicinity were erenaghs of Cloghmore (St. Colmcille). And the O’Solans were erenaghs of Cong.
Abthanes is a title of Old English derivation once thought to be unique to the Scottish Church, at least in title; they performed largely the same functions as erenaghs. Some of the abdens, or abthaneries, may have been under the jurisdiction of the Scottish Crown, others were certainly under bigger abbeys, such as St. Andrew’s.
Most cite only the three attributed to Crinan, Abbot of Dunkeld, but research in the last two centuries has shown there to have been many more. Those discovered so far include: Abernethy, Airlie, Blairgowrie, Brechin, Dull, Dunkeld, Edzell (Edale), Inverlunan, Kettins, Kilmichael, Kinghorn, Kinkel, Lindores, Lismore, Madderty, Melginch (St. Martin's), Montrose, Monifeith, Morfie (Ecclescraig, now St. Cyrus), Ratho, and Rossie.
Note that all the places cited above are at Columban, Culdee, or other Celtic monastic foundations.
Besides its linguistic derivation, there is other indication that the title was imported to or from the early Anglo-Saxon Church as it was before the Norman Conquest, when it had much in common with the Celtic Church. In The history and antiquities of the city of Bristol, William Barret cites from centuries old sources an “image of a Saxon abthane” in St. Baldwin’s Chapel on Baldwin’s Street in Bristol; in describing a chapel of St. Mary Magdalene, refers to one Godwin as “Earl or Abthane of Kent”, and in another passage calls one Loft “an abthane of Somerton”.
Types of martyrs
In the early Irish church, there were three classes of “martyrs”.
Red Martyrs in Ireland are what we usually think of when we hear the word “martyr”. Before the Viking Age, red martyrs among the Christian missionaries of Ireland were few and far between, even in the early stages. One notable example is St. Gregory Ceannanach. While preaching among the pagans of the Aughris Peninsula, he ran afoul of the local chieftain who ordered him beheaded. He is one of the few known.
Green Martyrs in Ireland were hermits, but they often didn’t remain hermits for long, as these tended to attract followers around them, by choice or otherwise. An good example from Connemara is St. Sinach Mac Dara, who exiled himself to a small island off the southern coast where he soon found himself surrounded by other “hermits”.
White Martyrs were those who left Ireland to carry the gospel to other lands, usually intending their self-exile to be permanent. For instance, St. Fursa of Rathmat Abbey on the shores of Loch Orbsen resigned his abbacy to lead a mission to East Anglia, relocating again in 644 to Neustria in northern Gaul, where he died about 650.
Tribal Connacht under the abbots
First let’s look at the tribes of Connacht as they were in the first two centuries of the Christianization of the island as a whole.
Among the Ui Amhlaigh (in the later barony of Tirawley), the leading institutions were the Abbey of Errew, which followed the Rule of St. Tigernan, its founder, and the Abbey of Killala, which followed the Rule of St. Cormac O’Liathain, its founder.
To their east, the most important institution of the Ui Fhiachrach Muaidhe (in the later barony of Tireragh) were the Abbey of Aughris which followed the Rule of St. Molaise, its founder, and the Abbey of Drumcliffe founded by St. Colmcille among the Cenel Cairbre and naturally following his Rule.
On the other side of the Ui Amhlaigh, the Cenel Feidhlimidh (in the later barony of Erris) mostly fell under the Abbey of Inishglora founded by St. Brendan of Clonfert or the Abbey of Inishkea founded by St. Colmcille, and following their respective Rules.
The major abbeys of the Ui Mhaille (in the later baronies of Murrisk and Burrishole) were the Abbey of Aughagower founded by St. Senan and under the Rule of St. Patrick, his mentor, and the Abbey of Oughaval founded by St. Colmcille and under his Rule.
The most important house among the Conmaicne Magh Rein was the Abbey of Ardagh, founded by St. Mel, under the Rule of St. Patrick because Mel was his disciple. There were other major centers at the Abbey of Coonaquin founded by St. Fraech, the Abbey of Mohill founded by St. Manchan, and the Abbey of Fenagh founded by St. Callin, each of which presumably followed their Rules. All these came under the Ui Briuin Breifne in the 7th century.
The northeast of their territory that later became Muintir Maoilmhordha of Ui Briuin Breifne (later formed East Breifne in the still later Co. Cavan) held most dear the Abbey of Kilmore founded by St. Felim, but they also respected the Abbey of Drumlane founded by St. Mogue.
The Muintir Annaly (in the later Co. Longford) had in their territory Loch Ree, which supported the abbeys on Inishmore, founded by St. Senan, on Inishbofin, founded by St. Rioch, and on Inishaingain, founded by St. Ciaran of Clonmacnoise before his more famous house.
Back towards the west, the major house of the Luigne (in the later barony of Leyny) was the Abbey of Achonry founded by St. Nathi, who followed the Rule of St. Finnian of Clonard, but the Abbey of Ballysadare under the Rule of St. Fechin was also important.
Their neighbors the Galenga (in the later barony of Gallen), who were their occasional rulers, mostly followed the Abbey of Meelik founded by St. Broccaidh.
The Partraige Ceara (in the later barony of Carra) mostly fell under the Abbey of Balla founded in 616 by St. Mochua and following his Rule, but the Abbey of Turlough founded by St. Patrick was important too. These Partaige found themselves displaced later in the century by a branch of the Ui Fiachrach called the Fir Ceara who adopted Balla as their spiritual center, and were reduced to Odhbha, which became the parish of Ballyovey and is now the parish of Partry.
When St. Colman of Inishbofin, formerly of Lindisfarne, founded the Abbey of Mayo-na-Saxon for the Inishbofin monks from Northumbria, he placed it among the Ciarraighe Uachtair in the later barony of Clanmorris, at the junction of two of their divisions with the Conmaicne Cuile Tolad to the east. Despite its comparatively late foundation, the abbey quickly became the most important institution among all the Ciarraighe, whether living in the territories of the Ui Briuin Ai or those of the Ui Fiachrach Muaidhe.
The Sil Murray, the leading sept of the Ui Briuin Magh Aoi and of Teora Connacht, had the Abbey of Elphin founded by St. Patrick as their central religious institution and most of their churches followed his Rule.
The (rest of the) Ui Briuin Ai followed the Rule of St. Coman, being under his Abbey of Roscommon, or else the Rule of St. Beoidh, founder of the Abbey of Ardcarn.
The churches among the Conmaicne Cuile Tolad and the Conmaicne Mara mostly followed the Rule of St. Fechin, who founded the Abbey of Cong about 623 after leaving Ballysadare, choosing that location because it was the junction of the territory of those two groups with the Partraige na Locha, who were dominated by the Conmaicne Cuile Tolad.
Circumstantial evidence indicates the Partriage an-t Sliebh, sandwiched in between the two branches of Conmaicne in the territory called Ui Orbsen, followed the Rules of Patrick, of Colmcille, and of Brendan initially, but in later centuries were governed by Cong and followed the Rule of St. Fechin.
The churches of the Conmaicne Dunmore fell under either the Abbey of Tuam which followed the Rule of St. Jarlath or the Abbey of Kilbennan, founded by St. Benan and following the Rule of St. Patrick.
Among the Ui Maine, the central house was the famous Abbey of Clonfert, and most of its churches followed the Rule of St. Brendan.
The Soghain, a subject tribe of the Ui Maine of Cruithni, or Pictish, origin, were evangelized by St. Jarlath from the Abbey of Tuam and St. Cuana of the Abbey of Kilcoona.
The Delbhna Cuile Fabhair next to them on the west followed the Rule of St. Ciaran of Clonmacnoise, founder of the Abbey of Annaghdown, as well as the Rule of St. Brendan of Clonfert, founder of the Abbey of Inchiquin on Loch Orbsen, to which he had retired after leaving Clonfert, as well as the Convent of Annaghdown, founded for his sister St. Briga.
To these was added Rathmat Abbey founded by St. Fursey, who had been educated at Inchiquin under Brendan’s successor, St. Meldan. Fursey, later of East Anglia in England and Neustria in northern Gaul, began his foundation about the same time as the Ui Briuin Seola (later known as the Muintir Murchada) conquered the area. Fursey’s house followed the Rule to which he had become accustomed, that of St. Brendan, and before long Brendan’s Rule had supplanted that of Ciaran at Annaghdown Abbey.
Though their patron was St. Finbarr of Cork since he was one of their own, the churches of Clan Fearghaill followed the Rule of St. Patrick, founder of the Abbey of Roscam.
The most important house among the Delbhna Tir Dha Locha was the Abbey of Portnacarron founded by St. Cuimin on the western shore of Loch Orbsen, but they also had the Abbey of Ballynspiddal founded by St. Enda, the Abbey of Cloghmore founded by St. Colmcille, and the Abbey of St. Mocan at Barraderry, the last three all on the northern shores of Loch Lurgan (Galway Bay), as well as the Abbey of Maumeen (and possibly of St. Kelly) on Gorumna Island and St. Brecan’s Monastery on Rosmuch Peninsula at the head of Kilkieran Bay.
The Ui Fiachrach Aidne centered their spiritual life on the Abbey of Kilmacduagh and fell under the Rule of St. Colman Mac Duagh, its founder.
The southern territory of the Ui Fiachrach Aidne that fell to the Eoghanachta in the mid-8th century (the later Co. Clare) was dominated by three tribes, with two more that were important.
Among the mainland Corco Mruad, the chief religious center was the Abbey of Kilnefora founded by St. Fachnan, but the the Abbey of Glencolumbkille under the Rule of St. Colmcille was also important.
For the Corco Baiscin to the south of them, the most important institution was the Abbey of Inish Caithagh, or Scattery Island, founded by St. Senan.
To the east of these, among the Deisi Tuaisceart who later became the Dal gCais, the Abbey of Killaloe founded by St. Cronan was dominant, but the Abbey of Inishcealtra founded by St. Caiman was also influential.
In between the Desi Tuaisceart and the other two groups, the Abbey of Dysert founded by St. Tola was the center of the spiritual life of the Cenel Fearmaic and the Abbey of Drumcliff founded by St. Colmcille was the religious center of the Ui Cormaic.
The Corco Mruad Arann, later under the Eoghanachta Ninussa, hosted more abbeys and monasteries than any other tribe, thirteen on Inishmore alone at the height of the Golden Age, of which three were very important.
First and foremost was the Abbey of Killeany and its college, founded by St. Enda at the eastern end of Inishmore. Second was the Abbey of Eoghanacht founded by St. Enda’s contemporary St. Brecan on the western end of the island. Both of those were established near the end of the 5th century. The third was the Abbey of Mainistir established by St. Ciaran of Clonmacnoise on the middle part of the island in the early 6th century.
The Abbey of Inishmaan was founded by St. Fechin in the 7th century, and the Abbey of Inisheer by St. Cavan in the 6th century.
Inevitably, some of the abbeys gained importance and prestige to the point of overshadowing or even totally eclipsing others in their neighborhood. Often, the abbey’s importance had little to do with the importance of the tribe among whom it stood.
The Abbey of Balla among the Partraige Ceara, for instance, rose to become the most important among all the Ui Fiachrach Muiadhe.
The Abbey of Achonry among the Luigne became the most important among the Ui Amhlaigh as well as the Luigne and Galenga.
The Abbey of Ardagh founded among the Conmaicne Magh Rein rose to dominance among the Ui Briuin Breifne.
The Abbey of Cong grew to dominate all the churches of the Conmaicne Cuile Tolad and the Conmaicne Mara as well as those between among the Partraige Locha and the Partraige an-t Sliebh, a fair swath of Connacht. For a time, Cong sat at the top of Connacht’s ecclesiastical pyramid, in large part because the high kings of Connacht made their seat there, until Aodh O’Connor relocated to Tuam in 1049.
That relocation was, in fact, the main reason that the Abbey of Tuam founded by St. Jarlath among the Conmaicne Dunmore became the most important in the kingdom of Connacht, ultimately ascending to the status of primal see.
Internationally, the most famous monastic house in Connacht (after
those in the Aran Isles) was the Abbey at Mayo-na-Saxon, which gave its name to
a village, a townland, a parish, and a county.
Established by St. Colman, formerly of Lindisfarne, for his Saxon
followers in 668, it had grown enough in two years to become independent of its
mother house on the island of Inishbofin.
Eventually, the mother house became dependent on its daughter, which
long before the reforms of the 12th century had risen to be one of the most
respected houses in the Isles.
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